مساعدتكم رجاءاً ضروري

[adhed]

السلام عليكم
ممكن ترجمة الموضوع التالي رجاءاً لأني بأمس الحاجة اليه وجزاكم الله كل خير

FOOD AND MEDICAL PRACTICE
"The European population increased rapidly in the eighteenth century. Plague and starvation gradu¬ally disappeared, and Europeans lived longer lives. What were the characteristics of diets and nutrition o this era of improving health and longevity? Al¬though it played only a small part, what was med¬ical practice like in the eighteenth century? What does a comparison of rich and poor reveal?

Diets and Nutrition
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, ordi¬nary men and women depended on grain as fully as they had in the past. Bread was quite literally the staff of life. Peasants in the Beauvais region of France ate two pounds of bread a day, washing it down with water, green wine, beer, or a little skimmed milk. Their dark bread was made from a mixture of roughly ground wheat and rye-the standard flour of the common people. The poor also ate grains in soup and gruel. In rocky north¬ern Scotland, for example, people depended on oatmeal, which they often ate half-cooked so that it would swell in their stomachs and make them feel full.
Not surprisingly, an adequate supply of grain and an affordable price for bread loomed in the popular imagination. Peasants, landless laborers, and urban workers all believed in the old medieval idea of the "just price"-that is, a price that was "fair" to both consumers and producers. But in the later eighteenth century, this traditional, moral view of prices and the economy clashed repeatedly with the emerging free-market philosophy of un¬regulated supply and demand, which government officials, large landowners, and early economists increasingly favored. In years of poor harvests and soaring prices, this clash often resulted in food ri¬ots and popular disturbances. Peasants and work¬ers would try to stop wagons loaded with grain from leaving their region, or they would seize grain held by speculators and big merchants ac¬cused of hoarding and rigging the market. (Usu¬ally the tumultuous crowd paid what it considered to be a fair price for what it took.) Governments were keenly aware of the problem of adequate grain supplies, and they would sometimes try to control prices to prevent unrest in crisis years.
Although breadstuffs were all-important for the rural and urban poor, they also ate a fair quantity of vegetables. Indeed, vegetables were considered "poor people's food." Peas and beans were prob¬ably the most common and were eaten fresh in late spring and summer. Dried, they became the basic ingredients in the soups and stews of the long winter months. In most regions, other vegetables appeared in season on the tables of the poor-primarily cabbages, carrots, and wild greens. Fruit was uncommon and limited to the summer months.
The common people of Europe loved meat and eggs, but they seldom ate their fill. Indeed, as the population surged in the sixteenth century, meat became more expensive, and the poor ate less meat in 1700 than in 1500. Moreover, in most Euro¬pean countries harsh game laws deprived the poor of the right to hunt and eat edible game such as rabbits, deer, and partridges. Only nobles and large landowners could legally kill game. Few laws were more bitterly resented-or more frequently bro¬ken-by ordinary people than those governing hunting.
Milk was rarely drunk. Perhaps because some in¬dividuals do suffer seriously from dairy allergies, it was widely believed that milk caused sore eyes, headaches, and a variety of ills, except among the very young and very old. Milk was used primarily to make cheese and butter, which the poor liked but could afford only occasionally. Medical and popular opinion considered whey, the watery liq¬uid left after milk was churned, "an excellent tem¬perate drink."
The diet of the rich-aristocrats, officials, and the comfortable bourgeoisie-was traditionally quite different from that of the poor. The men and women of the upper classes were rapacious carni¬vores. A truly elegant dinner among the great and powerful consisted of one rich meat after another: a chicken pie, a leg of lamb, a grilled steak, for ex¬ample, perhaps followed by three fish courses, all complemented with sweets, cheeses, and nuts of all kinds. Fruits and vegetables were not often found on the tables of the rich.
There was also an enormous amount of over¬drinking among the rich. The English squire who loved to hunt with his hounds loved to drink with a similar passion. With his dinner he drank red wine from France or white wine from the Rhine¬land, and with his dessert he took sweet but strong port or Madeira from Portugal. Sometimes he ended the evening under the table in a drunken stupor.
The diet of small traders, master craftsmen, mi¬nor bureaucrats-the people of the towns and cities-was generally less monotonous than that of the peasantry. The markets, stocked by market gar¬dens on the outskirts, provided a substantial vari¬ety of meats, vegetables, and fruits, although bread and beans still formed the bulk of such families' diet.
There were also regional dietary differences in 1700. Generally speaking, northern, Atlantic Eu¬rope ate better than southern, Mediterranean Eu¬rope. The poor of England probably ate best of all. The Dutch were also considerably better fed than the average European, in large part because of their advanced agriculture and diversified gardens

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بليز لا تبخلو عليَّ بالترجمة ولو مقطع منه بس اهم شي لا من موقع او برنامج ترجمة بليز

[اللَبيب]

[QUOTE=adhed;59034]السلام عليكم
ممكن ترجمة الموضوع التالي رجاءاً لأني بأمس الحاجة اليه وجزاكم الله كل خير

FOOD AND MEDICAL PRACTICE
"The European population increased rapidly in the eighteenth century. Plague and starvation gradu¬ally disappeared, and Europeans lived longer lives. What were the characteristics of diets and nutrition o this era of improving health and longevity? Al¬though it played only a small part, what was med¬ical practice like in the eighteenth century? What does a comparison of rich and poor reveal?

Diets and Nutrition
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, ordi¬nary men and women depended on grain as fully as they had in the past. Bread was quite literally the staff of life. Peasants in the Beauvais region of France ate two pounds of bread a day, washing it down with water, green wine, beer, or a little skimmed milk. Their dark bread was made from a mixture of roughly ground wheat and rye-the standard flour of the common people. The poor also ate grains in soup and gruel. In rocky north¬ern Scotland, for example, people depended on oatmeal, which they often ate half-cooked so that it would swell in their stomachs and make them feel full.
Not surprisingly, an adequate supply of grain and an affordable price for bread loomed in the popular imagination. Peasants, landless laborers, and urban workers all believed in the old medieval idea of the "just price"-that is, a price that was "fair" to both consumers and producers. But in the later eighteenth century, this traditional, moral view of prices and the economy clashed repeatedly with the emerging free-market philosophy of un¬regulated supply and demand, which government officials, large landowners, and early economists increasingly favored. In years of poor harvests and soaring prices, this clash often resulted in food ri¬ots and popular disturbances. Peasants and work¬ers would try to stop wagons loaded with grain from leaving their region, or they would seize grain held by speculators and big merchants ac¬cused of hoarding and rigging the market. (Usu¬ally the tumultuous crowd paid what it considered to be a fair price for what it took.) Governments were keenly aware of the problem of adequate grain supplies, and they would sometimes try to control prices to prevent unrest in crisis years.
Although breadstuffs were all-important for the rural and urban poor, they also ate a fair quantity of vegetables. Indeed, vegetables were considered "poor people's food." Peas and beans were prob¬ably the most common and were eaten fresh in late spring and summer. Dried, they became the basic ingredients in the soups and stews of the long winter months. In most regions, other vegetables appeared in season on the tables of the poor-primarily cabbages, carrots, and wild greens. Fruit was uncommon and limited to the summer months.
The common people of Europe loved meat and eggs, but they seldom ate their fill. Indeed, as the population surged in the sixteenth century, meat became more expensive, and the poor ate less meat in 1700 than in 1500. Moreover, in most Euro¬pean countries harsh game laws deprived the poor of the right to hunt and eat edible game such as rabbits, deer, and partridges. Only nobles and large landowners could legally kill game. Few laws were more bitterly resented-or more frequently bro¬ken-by ordinary people than those governing hunting.
Milk was rarely drunk. Perhaps because some in¬dividuals do suffer seriously from dairy allergies, it was widely believed that milk caused sore eyes, headaches, and a variety of ills, except among the very young and very old. Milk was used primarily to make cheese and butter, which the poor liked but could afford only occasionally. Medical and popular opinion considered whey, the watery liq¬uid left after milk was churned, "an excellent tem¬perate drink."
The diet of the rich-aristocrats, officials, and the comfortable bourgeoisie-was traditionally quite different from that of the poor. The men and women of the upper classes were rapacious carni¬vores. A truly elegant dinner among the great and powerful consisted of one rich meat after another: a chicken pie, a leg of lamb, a grilled steak, for ex¬ample, perhaps followed by three fish courses, all complemented with sweets, cheeses, and nuts of all kinds. Fruits and vegetables were not often found on the tables of the rich.
There was also an enormous amount of over¬drinking among the rich. The English squire who loved to hunt with his hounds loved to drink with a similar passion. With his dinner he drank red wine from France or white wine from the Rhine¬land, and with his dessert he took sweet but strong port or Madeira from Portugal. Sometimes he ended the evening under the table in a drunken stupor.
The diet of small traders, master craftsmen, mi¬nor bureaucrats-the people of the towns and cities-was generally less monotonous than that of the peasantry. The markets, stocked by market gar¬dens on the outskirts, provided a substantial vari¬ety of meats, vegetables, and fruits, although bread and beans still formed the bulk of such families' diet.
There were also regional dietary differences in 1700. Generally speaking, northern, Atlantic Eu¬rope ate better than southern, Mediterranean Eu¬rope. The poor of England probably ate best of all. The Dutch were also considerably better fed than the average European, in large part because of their advanced agriculture and diversified gardens[/QUOTE]

تفضلي

الغذاء والممارسة الطبية
"الأوروبي وزاد عدد السكان بسرعة في القرن الثامن عشر. الطاعون والمجاعة حليف اختفى ، والأوروبيين يعيشون حياة أطول. ما هي خصائص النظام الغذائي والتغذية س هذه الحقبة من تحسين الصحة وطول العمر؟ رغم أنه لعب صغيرة فقط الجزء ، ما كان ميدمثل هذه الممارسة في القرن الثامن عشر؟ ماذا المقارنة بين الأغنياء والفقراء تكشف؟

النظام الغذائي والتغذية
وفي بداية القرن الثامن عشر ، ناري الرجل والمرأة تعتمد على الحبوب لأنها تماما كما كان في الماضي. الخبز كان حرفيا تماما الموظفين من الحياة. بوفيه الفلاحين في المنطقة من فرنسا يأكلون جنيهين من الخبز يوميا ، وغسل عنها المياه مع الخضراء النبيذ ، البيرة ، أو قليلا من حليب منزوع الدسم. كان الظلام على الخبز المصنوعة من مزيج من الأرض تقريبا القمح والجودار بين مستوى الدقيق من عامة الناس. الفقراء يأكلون أيضا في الحبوب وحساء عصيدة. الصخرية في شمال اسكتلندا ، على سبيل المثال ، يتوقف على الشعب دقيق الشوفان ، التي كثيرا ما يأكلون نصف المطهية ، بحيث يكون تورم في بطونهم ونجعلهم يشعرون كامل.
وليس من المدهش ، وإمدادات كافية من الحبوب وبأسعار في متناول اليد لالخبز تلوح في أفق الخيال الشعبي. الفلاحين ، والعمال لا يملكون أرضا ، ويعتقد جميع العاملين في المناطق الحضرية القديمة في القرون الوسطى فكرة "سعر عادل" ، وهي الأسعار التي كانت "عادلة" إلى كل من المستهلكين والمنتجين. ولكن في وقت لاحق من القرن الثامن عشر ، هذا التقليدية ، نظرا للأسعار الأخلاقية والاقتصاد واشتبكت مرارا مع الناشئة فلسفة السوق الحرة للامم المتحدة ¬ ينظم العرض والطلب ، التي المسؤولين الحكوميين ، وكبار ملاك الأراضي ، ويؤيدون بشكل متزايد من الاقتصاديين في وقت مبكر. في سنوات من قلة المحصول وارتفاع الأسعار ، وكثيرا ما أدى هذا الاشتباك في الغذاء ري والاضطرابات الشعبية. ¬ الفلاحين والعمل من شأنه أن المتطلبات البيئية في محاولة لوقف عربات محملة الحبوب من مغادرة المنطقة ، أو أنها عقدت سيغتنم هذه الحبوب من جانب المضاربين وكبار التجار من أ من اكتناز والتلاعب في السوق. حليف الجماهير الصاخبة تدفع ما رأت أنه سعر عادل لأنه ما أحاط.الحكومات كانت تدرك تماما من مشكلة ما يكفي من امدادات الحبوب الغذائية ، وأنها في بعض الأحيان في محاولة للسيطرة على الأسعار لمنع الاضطرابات في سنوات الأزمة.
وبالرغم من الطحين وكانت كل من المهم بالنسبة للفقراء الريف والحضر ، كما أنهم يأكلون عادلة كمية من الخضراوات. في الواقع ، والخضراوات وتعتبر "الفقراء الغذاء". البازلاء والفول وكانت غالبا باقتدار الأكثر شيوعا ، وكانت تؤكل جديدة في أواخر الربيع والصيف. المجففة ، وأنها أصبحت المكونات الأساسية في الشوربات ويطبخ من أشهر الشتاء الطويل. في معظم المناطق ، وغيرها من الخضروات وبدا في الموسم على الجداول من الفقراء في المقام الأول بين الملفوف ، والجزر ، والخضر البرية. الفاكهة كان من غير المألوف وتقتصر على أشهر الصيف.
المشتركة الناس من أوروبا أحب اللحوم والبيض ، لكنها نادرا ما يأكلون على ملء. والواقع ، كما ارتفع عدد السكان في القرن السادس عشر ، أصبحت أكثر تكلفة ، اللحوم ، والفقراء يأكلون اللحوم في 1700 أقل مما كان عليه في 1500. وعلاوة على ذلك ، في معظم البلدان الأوروبية الأنشودة قوانين قاسية لعبة حرمان الفقراء من الحق في مطاردة وأكل الصالحة للأكل اللعبة مثل الارانب والغزلان ، والحجول. إلا النبلاء وكبار ملاك الأراضي من الناحية القانونية يمكن أن تقتل اللعبة. عدد قليل من قوانين أكثر بمرارة استياء أو أكثر كثيرا ما كن بين الناس العاديين من جانب من تلك التي تنظم الصيد.
الحليب ونادرا ما كان في حالة سكر. ربما لأن في بعضيعانون بشكل خطير من الألبان والحساسية ، كان يعتقد على نطاق واسع أن الحليب تسبب التهاب العيون ، والصداع ، ومجموعة متنوعة من العلل ، إلا فيما بين الصغار جدا وقديمة جدا. اللبن كانت تستخدم أساسا لجعل الجبن والزبد ، الذي يحب فقراء ولكن يمكن أن تحمل إلا لماما. والطبية والرأي العام يعتبر مصل اللبن ، المائي رمز المستخدم غادر بعد الحليب كان مخضخض ، "ممتازة شرب".
والوجبة الغنية - الأرستقراطيون ، المسؤولين ، ومريح البرجوازية كان تقليديا بين مختلف تماما عن أن للفقراء. الرجال والنساء من الطبقات العليا كانت الجشع كارني . حقا أنيقة العشاء بين كبير وقوي يتألف من اللحوم الغنية واحدة بعد أخرى : فطيرة الدجاج ، وهي محطة من الضأن ، وهو شريحة لحم مشوي ، السابقين وافرة ، ربما تليها ثلاث دورات السمك ، مع استكمال جميع الحلوى ، والجبن ، و المكسرات من جميع الأنواع. الفاكهة والخضر لم تكن في كثير من الأحيان الاطلاع على الجداول من الأغنياء.
وكان هناك أيضا وجود كمية هائلة من خلال الشرب بين الأغنياء. وقد الانجليزية سكوير الذي أحب لمطاردة مع كلاب الصيد أحب شرب مماثلة مع العاطفة. مع عشاء كان يشرب النبيذ الاحمر من فرنسا أو النبيذ الأبيض من نهر الراين الأرض ، ومع حلوى إنه يعتبر الحلو ولكن قوية من ميناء أو ماديرا البرتغال. أحيانا انه انهى مساء تحت الطاولة وهو في حالة سكر في سبات.
النظام الغذائي للصغار التجار ، والحرفيين رئيسية ، ولا مي البيروقراطيين بين الناس من بين البلدات والمدن عموما أقل رتابة أكثر من الفلاحين. الأسواق ، والتي يخزنها السوق غار اوكار على مشارف ، وقدمتكبيرة من اللحوم والخضراوات والفواكه ، على الرغم من الخبز والفول لا تزال تشكل الجزء الأكبر من هذه الأسر النظام الغذائي.
وكانت هناك أيضا اختلافات الإقليمية الغذائية في 1700. وبصفة عامة ، شمال ، والمحيط الأطلسي للاتحاد الاوربى حبل يأكلون أفضل من الجنوب ، البحر الأبيض المتوسط للاتحاد الاوربى حبل. الفقراء من انكلترا وربما يأكلون أفضل للجميع. وكان الهولنديون أيضا بشكل كبير على تغذية أفضل بكثير من المتوسط الأوروبي ، في جزء كبير منه بسبب وضعهم المتقدمة والزراعة والحدائق المتنوعة